Selected Bibliography

This annotated bibliography is not intended to be comprehensive. Rather, it includes major books on the topic, many research and commentary articles, as well as documentary and instructive videos. Among the research articles, emphasis is given to those studies in which facilitated communication users were able to confirm their communicative competence with the method, as well as several often cited studies in which researchers were unable to confirm the effectiveness of facilitation. In addition, we have included books and articles that do not specifically reference the augmentative and alternative communication method of facilitated communication but which are relevant to the broader issues of communication, factors that influence communication, participation in school and community, literacy, disability studies, and communication rights.

Autobiographies/Personal Accounts

Alatalo, T. (1999). Olen ja saan sanoa. Helsinki: Werner Soderstrom Osakeyhtio oyj.
A Finnish young man’s autobiographical account. He uses facilitation to communicate. (In Finnish).

Barron, J. & Barron, S. (1992). There’s a boy in here. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Includes explanations of behavior considered challenging by Sean Barron himself, a young man with the label of autism. The combination of accounts by Sean and his mother, Judy, provide a full family account.

Biklen, D. (Ed). (2005). Autism and the myth of the person alone. New York: New York University Press.
Edited by Biklen, with chapters written by Richard Attfield, Larry Bissonnette, Lucy Blackman, Jamie Burke, Alberto Frugone, Tito Rajarshi Mukhopadhyay, and Sue Rubin, this book challenges the prevailing, tragic narrative of impairment that so often characterizes discussions about autism. “A basic premise of the book is that people classified as autistic, even those who cannot speak, are thinking people with ideas about their lives and their relationship to the world. I call this orientation the presumption of competence” (p. 1).

Biklen, D. & Duchan, J. (1994). "I am intelligent": The social construction of mental retardation. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 173-184.
This article challenges the usefulness and validity of the label of mental retardation by offering first-hand accounts of those once considered retarded now communicating their intelligence.

Biklen, D., & Rossetti, Z. (producers) (2005). My classic life as an artist: A portrait of Larry Bissonnette. (Video documentary.) Available from Syracuse University, 370 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, New York.
Looking back on his years of living in a closed institution for people labeled mentally retarded, Vermont-based autistic artist Larry Bissonnette assesses this form of "apartheid" as "better for growing vegetables rather than people." This documentary is filled with Bissonnette's humorous yet poignant assessments of his life – growing up, his family, and creating art. Moving back and forth between speech, typing, and painting, Bissonnette's wit and insight punctuate a day in the life of this Outsider artist, and artfully illustrate the complexities of expression.

Blackman, L. (1999). Lucy’s story: Autism and other adventures. Brisbane: Book in Hand.
Lucy Blackman was at one time thought moderately retarded (actually in Australia the term applied was intellectually disabled). She learned to communicate using facilitated communication and has since graduated to being able to type without physical support. She earned a bachelor’s degree in arts and letters from Deakin University in Australia and is currently enrolled in graduate studies. Anthony Attwood says of Blackman’s book in his introduction: “Lucy provides the point of view of someone with autism who has never used speech. I first met Lucy in Melbourne in 1990 and over the intervening years she has taught me more about autism than any academic text” (p. vii).

Bogdan, R. & Taylor, S. (1994). The social meaning of mental retardation: Two life stories. New York: Teachers College Press.
The concept of mental retardation is challenged through life histories based on in-depth interviews with former inmates of institutions for people labeled retarded. The authors argue that mental retardation is not a real entity, but rather a social construction.

Crossley, R. & McDonald, A. (1984). Annie's Coming Out. New York: Viking Penguin.
An autobiographical account of Anne McDonald’s struggle to leave a mental retardation institution. McDonald, who learned to communicate via facilitation, had to pass several validation tests before being declared competent and permitted to leave the institution. “Unless someone makes a jump by going outside the handicapped person’s previous stage of communication, there is no way the speechless person can do so. Failure is no crime. Failure to give someone the benefit of the doubt is” (p. 76).

Eastham, M. (1992). Silent words. Ottawa: Oliver Pate.
A mother’s account of how her son learned to communicate with facilitation and to become an independent typist. Includes poetry of David Eastham, written prior to his untimely death. This is one of several instances internationally where facilitated communication was discovered, independent of similar discoveries in other countries.

Gillingham, G. and McClennen, S. (2003). Sharing our wisdom: A collection of presentations by people within the autism spectrum. North Plymouth, MA: The Autism National Committee.
This book of 22 conference presentations, accompanied by author biographies and photos, gives an insider’s view of living with an autism spectrum label.

Grandin, T. & Scariano, M.N. (1986). Emergence labeled autistic. Novato, CA: Arena Press.
An autobiography by Temple Grandin about her life with autism, including accounts of her experiences as a child before people knew she could understand them when she could not let them know through speech. This is not a book about facilitation, but it is nevertheless important to understanding facilitation, for many of her experiences parallel those reported by people who now use facilitation.

Grandin, T. (1995). Thinking in pictures and other reports from my life with autism. New York: Vintage Books.
Thinking In Pictures is about the childhood and development of Temple Grandin, a woman with autism. She says words are like a second language to her, noting that she thinks primarily in images. Grandin, who holds a Ph.D. in animal science and has designed equipment that revolutionized the livestock industry, proposes that genius and autism may be closely related.

Hale, M. J. G., & Hale, C. M., Jr. (1999). “I had no means to shout!” Bloomington, IN: 1st Books.
Charles Hale, a man with autism, discovered the communication technique of facilitated communication (FC) when he was 36 years old, and this book chronicles his life before and after he began to use FC through both Charles’ and his mother’s narratives. When he was a child, Hale was diagnosed as “trainably mentally retarded,” and it was not until he began using FC that he discovered he was autistic. While some of Charles’ narrative has been edited for easier reading, the authors make a conscious choice to leave many of Charles’ passages as originally typed, so that reader can see the clear intended meaning through errors made while using the method. The narrative provides, in Charles’ voice, a fascinating and detailed insiders’ perspective to what autism feels like, how Charles’ apraxia and dyspraxia have affected his life and his communication, and how FC allows Charles not to emerge from autism, but rather, to express himself “as the intelligent, cognizant man he really is.”

Jackson, L. (2002). Freaks, geeks, and Asperger syndrome: A user guide to adolescence. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley.
Described as a book for adolescents with Asperger syndrome by a 13-year old with a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome, this conversational account offers a strong insider’s account of living with AS. Jackson discusses social interactions, bullying, fascinations and fixations, dating, friendship, sensory issues, and much more. “I have what some people would call a disability but I call a gift- Asperger Syndrome (AS)” (p. 19).

Kochmeister, S.J. (1994). Reflections on a year of turmoil and growth. Facilitated Communication Digest, 2, (4), 6-8.
An account by a person who was once presumed severely retarded and who since learned to communicate with facilitation before progressing to the point where she can type without any physical support.

Martin, R. (1994). Out of silence: A journey into language. NY: Henry Holt and Company.
A popular book that recounts the author’s nephew’s introduction to facilitated communication and his subsequent experiences. This book, favorably reviewed in the New York Times Book Review and other major media outlets, concerns theories about literacy as well as the struggles of the author’s nephew to find a means of communicating.

Mukhopadhyay, T.R. (2000). Beyond the silence: My life, the world and autism. London: National Autistic Society.
An autobiographical account by a young man with autism who learned to communication with physical support and who now types independently and can speak. Lorna Wing has written in the forward to this book: “His writing provides a vivid description of what it is like to be autistic and his thoughts about the meaning of life. It is essential reading for anyone wanting to understand the nature of autism” (p. 3).

Nolan, C. (1987). Under the eye of the clock. New York: St. Martins Press.
A best-selling autobiographical novel by a writer with cerebral palsy, including a brief description of his writing method that includes facilitation.

Prince-Hughes, D. (2002). Aquamarine blue 5: Personal stories of college students with autism. Athens: Swallow Press.
Prince-Hughes, a woman with Asperger syndrome, edits this book of stories detailing the experiences of college students with autism spectrum labels. Many of the stories describe individuals emerging from earlier difficulties during secondary and elementary education once in college due to the development of academic, social, and sensory supports.

Prince-Hughes, D. (2004). Songs of the gorilla nation: My journey through autism. New York: Harmony Books.
“This is a book about autism. Specifically, it is about my autism, which is both like and unlike other people’s autism. But just as much, it is a story about how I emerged from the darkness of it into the beauty of it” (p. 1).

Rubin, S., Biklen, D., Kasa-Hendrickson, C., Kluth, P., Cardinal, D.N., & Broderick, A., (2001). Independence, participation, and the meaning of intellectual ability. Disability and Society, 16, 415-429.
“When I was in school autistic people like me were usually placed in separate schools or special day classes with other disabled students (and) were not allowed to learn academic subjects. Because of the way we move and our lack of speech we were assumed to be retarded. I was thought to be retarded (but) all this changed ... once I could type without support... My very existence challenged beliefs about mental retardation. Able to type independently... my presentations (at conferences) were acts of advocacy.... When people see me they are forced to admit that their assumptions about mental retardation were wrong” (p. 419).

Schneiderman, H (1994). Letter to the editor: Personal experiences with facilitative communication. Journal of Child Neurology, 9.
A father/pediatrician recounts his own experiences in being a facilitator for his son and the conversations they have had together. Includes some fascinating uses of archaic expressions by the author’s son.

Sellin, B. (1995). I don't want to be inside me anymore: Messages from an autistic mind. New York: Basic Books.
An autobiographical account of one person’s learning to communicate via facilitation. Exceptionally rich material on how one person experiences autism.

Shore, S. (2001). Beyond the wall: Personal experiences with autism and Asperger syndrome. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing.
This comprehensive autobiography follows Shore from birth through his marriage and professional career as an advocate, educator, and doctoral student. He blends a researcher’s perspective into this account as he analyzes his experiences via some of the literature on autism.

Sienkiewicz-Mercer, R. & Kaplan, S. B. (1989). I raise my eyes to say yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Not about facilitation, but this book is a very well written account of communication with augmentative and alternative systems, demonstrating the importance of interaction between the person doing the communicating and a communication partner.

Wurzburg, G. (producer/director) (2004). Autism is a world. Documentary. Atlanta: CNN.
For 26 years, Sue Rubin has been on an extraordinary journey. Her unusual behavior led to a diagnosis of autism when she was four. She was believed to be retarded until age 13. But then a new communication technique, facilitated communication, gave Sue the ability to connect with the world. Now, she is a junior in college with a top IQ, a tireless disabled-rights activist, and an articulate guide into a complex disorder. The documentary film was nominated for an Academy Award.

Zoeller, Dietmar (1992). Ich gebe nichtauf (I won’t give up). Bern: Scherz Verlag.
Autobiographical account of life with autism, written by a person who uses facilitation. Includes useful insights into difficulties with dyspraxia.

Communication/Technique

Beukelman, D.R. & Mirenda, P. (1998). Augmentative and alternative communication: Management of severe communication disorders in children and adults. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 327-329.
“Sharisa (a facilitated communication user) joins a small group of people around the world who began communicating through FC and are now able to type either independently or with minimal, hand-on-shoulder support. There can be no doubt that, for them, FC ‘worked,’ in that it opened the door to communication for the first time. In addition, hundreds (or even thousands) of individuals use FC with physical support. To many observers, it does not seem clear whether or not these individuals are authoring their own messages. Thus, FC has become controversial and hotly contested as a valid and reliable technique (e.g., Green & Shane, 1994). We include FC here because of Sharisa Kochmeister, Lucy Blachman, Larry Bissonnette, and others who now communicate fluently and independently, thanks to FC. For them, the controversy has ended” (p. 327).

Biklen, D. (1990). Communication unbound: Autism and praxis. Harvard Educational Review, 60, 291-314.
Biklen’s first research article on facilitated communication. This is a rich qualitative study of the facilitative communication method developed by Rosemary Crossley and others at the DEAL Communication Centre in Melbourne, Australia.

Biklen, D. et. al. (1991). "I amn not a utistivc on thje typ" ("I'm not autistic on the typewriter"). Disability, Handicap, & Society, 6, 161-180.
This observational study describes efforts to introduce the AAC method of facilitated communication to 22 students labeled autistic ranging in age from 3 to 21 years in US public schools.

Biklen, D. (1993). Communication unbound: How facilitated communication is challenging traditional views of autism and ability/disability. New York: Teachers College Press.
This book includes Biklen’s first article on facilitated communication (see above), as well as how-to information about the method and a discussion of how findings from facilitation challenge prevailing understandings of autism and related developmental disabilities.

Crossley, R. (1992). Getting the words out: Facilitated communication training. Topics in Language Disorders, 12, 46-59.
Part of a special issue of this journal devoted to facilitated communication.

Crossley, R. (1994). Facilitated Communication Training. New York: Teachers College Press.
An original how-to book about facilitation with people with severe communication difficulties.

Crossley, R. (1997). Speechless: Facilitating communication for people without voices. New York: Dutton.
This book, written by the Australian educator widely recognized as one of the first to use facilitated communication, and certainly the first to prove the method’s effectiveness through validation tests, includes a series of case studies, told autobiographically. Crossley describes her work with individuals who have different disabilities and who use a variety of augmentative and alternative communication systems (AAC), including in several instances facilitated communication. Speechless provides excellent documentation of the complexities of AAC and shows how the social context experienced by people who cannot speak has a dramatic impact on their opportunities to communicate in other ways.

Crossley, R. & Remington-Gurney, J. (1992). Getting the words out I. Topics in Language Disorders, 12, 29-45.
Part of a special issue of this journal devoted to facilitated communication. This article provides some background on the method and its use with individuals in Australia.

Facilitated Communication Institute (2000). Facilitated Communication Training Standards. Syracuse, NY: Author. Available on-line at: http://suedweb.syr.edu/thefci.
This document explains the fundamental principles of facilitated communication, elements of good/”best” practices, methods of training, and competency levels. Appendices include a bibliography as well as a supervision checklist and skill building elements.

Watts, G. & Wurzburg, G. (Producers). (1994). Every step of the way (Videotape). Syracuse: Syracuse University Facilitated Communication Institute.
A videotape featuring several individuals who are learning to communicate without physical support. The tape focuses on the participants’ own perspectives on the process of achieving independence, and includes diagnostic data on them prior to and after being introduced to facilitation.

Wurzburg, G. & Watts, G. (1994). Introduction to facilitated communication; We have a lot to offer; Part of our lives; A new beginning; The school years (Videotapes). Syracuse, NY: Facilitated Communication Institute.
A series of videotapes that introduce the method and demonstrate how teachers, parents, families, and friends are using it in their communities.

Communication/Research

Biklen, D. & Cardinal, D. (Eds.) (1997). Contested words, contested science: Unraveling the facilitated communication controversy. New York: Teachers College Press.
A collection of studies (controlled, quantitative ones as well as qualitative investigations) of facilitation, focusing mainly on the authorship question: Who is doing the typing: the facilitator or the person with the communication impairment? The book includes a chapter by Marcus and Shevin in which Marcus, an FC user, replicates a classic facilitated communication authorship test.

Biklen, D., Saha, N., & Kliewer, C. (1995). How teachers confirm authorship of facilitated communication. Journal of the Association for persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 45-56.
A qualitative examination of the authorship question, examining authorship of all students (17) in several school settings who were using facilitation: “Teachers provided and described evidence for 13 of the 17 students of message passing skills (i.e., typing information not known to their facilitators that could be verified as accurate). The teachers noted that 3 of these 13 and 4 of the total 17 achieved some independent typing beyond typing their names and the date. Sixteen of the 17 students were judged by their teachers to have confirmed their typing/communication ability by virtue of other features: unique physical characteristics in typing or pointing, personal themes, recurring phrases, and stylistic qualities. These features appeared in their individual work but not in others, even though several shared facilitators” (p. 45.).

Broderick, A. & Kasa-Hendrickson, C. (2001). “Say just one word at first”: The emergence of reliable speech in a student labeled with autism. The Journal of the Association for People with Severe Handicaps, 26, 13-24.
“Jamie had been silently typing his communication first and then reading it aloud afterward in what appeared essentially to be two separate processes of expression. However, as the summer progressed, Jamie began to incorporate his speech into the typing process itself, sometimes saying letters and whole words aloud before he typed them, and sometimes talking himself through word-finding, self-correction, or message clarification processes” (p. 19). “As a nonverbal child, Jamie was provided with a text based system of communication presuming that he could and would become literate in reading and writing. He has. As a nonverbal child with autism, Jamie was provided with rigorous, age appropriate, academic curricula and literacy experiences, presuming that he could and would achieve academically. He has. And as nonverbal child, Jamie was provided with AAC technology that supported his integration of auditory and visual information, presuming that he could and would become not only a reader and a writer, but also a speaker. He has” (p. 23). See also the video described in this reference list: Inside the Edge (Kasa-Hendrickson).

Bundschuh, K. & Basler-Eggen, A. (2000). Abschlussbericht zur Studie, Getutzte Kommunication bei Menschen mit schwern Kommunikationsstorwigen. Munich: Bayerisches Staatsministerium fur Arbeit und Sozialordunung, Familie, Fauen und Gesundheit.
“Individually six students (of 7) have unequivocally proven cognitive capacities- defined as the ability to solve written multiple-choice tasks (in the facilitator blind condition) on mathematics, translations of English into German, and geography, biology and other knowledge.”

Cardinal, D., Hanson, D., & Wakeham, J. (1996). An investigation of authorship in facilitated communication. Mental Retardation 34, 231-242.
The largest scale validation study to date. Forty-three individuals were asked to type words that they had seen but their facilitators had not seen. Seventy-four percent of the participants demonstrated that facilitation aided them in conveying words their facilitators had no way of knowing.

Eberlin, M. McConnachie, G. Ibel, S., & Volpe, L. (1993) Facilitated communication: A failure to replicate the phenomenon. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23, 507-530.
One of the early studies in which the tested individuals were unable to demonstrate that they were communicating their own thoughts. “Twenty-one subjects participated in a study- no client showed unexpected literacy or communicative abilities when tested via the facilitator screening procedures, even after 20 hours of training” (p. 507).

Halle, J.W., Chadsey-Rusch, J., and Reichle, J. (1994). Editorial introduction to special topic on facilitated communication. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 149-150.
Introduction to articles by Green & Shane, Biklen & Duchan, and to commentaries by Horner, Kaiser, Whitehurst, and Williams. A good example of the parameters of the dialogue (at the time) over facilitated communication. Much of the debate centers on the meaning and assessment of mental retardation. The article by Williams, cited in this bibliography is of particular interest.

Intellectual Disability Review Panel. (1989). Investigation into the reliability and validity of the assisted communication technique. Melbourne: Department of Community Services, Victoria.
An often cited study, the first formal study, of facilitated communication. Four of the six individuals tested demonstrated that they were able to communicate their own thoughts via the method. One individual who produced valid communication also demonstrated that he could be influenced in his communication by the facilitator.

Janzen-Wilde, M.L., Duchan, J.F., and Higginbotham, D.J. (1995). Successful use of facilitated communication with an oral child. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 658-676.
“A 6 year-old child’s oral and spelled utterances were compared over a 3-month period as he was trained to use Facilitated Communication (FC).... The child’s language with FC was significantly better than his oral language in length of utterances, novelty of utterances, and syntactic complexity. His language with FC also contained more function words and over time was more intelligible and required less verbal scaffolding than his oral communication. Evidence that he was authoring his own messages during his facilitated spelling was found in his idiosyncratic use of language and his ability to convey verifiable information that was unknown to the facilitator. The strongest evidence came later with his ability to type messages without physical support” (p. 658).

Marcus, E. and Shevin, M. (1997). Sorting it out under fire: Our journey. In D. Biklen and D. Cardinal (Eds.) Contested words, contested science: Unraveling the facilitated communication controversy. New York: Teachers College Press.
One of the authors (Marcus) has autism. In this article, Marcus replicates the Wheeler study cited below, and with modest modifications (e.g. numerous practice sessions, extended time to answer, etc.) demonstrates that he is the author of the words he types with facilitation. “The difference I felt from doing this task a year earlier was my clearest indication of how I had progressed during the previous year. The first time I tried, my nervousness limited me to nothing that was real. By my second trial, (there had been many practice sessions in between) I had gained the confidence I needed to write real thoughts, not just letting my fingers type without engaging my thinking. Please understand: facilitated communication is how I got from ‘point a’ to ‘point b.’ Readiness for independence starts from deep confidence, not a ‘sink-or-swim’ mentality” (pp. 130-132).

Niemi, J. & Karna-Lin, E. (2002). Grammar and lexicon in facilitated communication: A linguistic authorship analysis of a Finnish case. Mental Retardation, 40, 347-357.
“In the data analysis, as explicit criteria for (the subject’s) idiosyncrasies, we used patterns typical of children acquiring Finnish as their first language and those found in normal slips of the tongue, acquired aphasia, and specific language impairment. Based on the analysis (i.e., the idiosyncrasy and agrammaticality of word-forms and sentences), we strongly suggest that his output can hardly be a product of any other speaker of Finnish, including that of his facilitators” (p. 347).

Olney, M. (1995). A controlled evaluation of facilitated communication. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. (Also available from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor Michigan).
A controlled, quantitative study in which adult users of facilitation were asked to play sophisticated computer games when their facilitators could not see the computer screen. Five of nine participants succeeded in doing so and in responding correctly to a majority of questions or activities, validating their communicative competence at statistically significant levels. See also the video documentary on this study, entitled Under Controlled Conditions, described at the website: http://soeweb.syr.edu/thefci.

Sheehan, C. & Matuozzi, R. (1996) Validation of facilitated communication. Mental Retardation, 34, 94-107.
"Three individuals (8,10, and 24 years old with diagnoses of autism and mental retardation) participated in a message passing format to determine whether they could disclose information previously unknown to their facilitators. Results showed valid facilitated communication from each participant. The facilitated speakers participated in 14 sessions, each lasting approximately 1 to 1.5 hours. A wide range of information was collected, coded, and analyzed for validity, consistency, language difficulties, behavioral compliance, and style of facilitation. Out of 720 communicative interactions, participants disclosed 77 incidents of unknown information. Each participant revealed unique behaviors and styles of responding, and all were able to demonstrate genuinely independent communication through disclosure of specific information previously unknown to a facilitator, although much inconsistency was noted. Results suggest that a phenomenon as complex as facilitated communication eludes a cursory exploration" (p. 94).

Steering Committee, Division of Intellectual Disability Services (1993). The Queensland report on facilitated communication. Brisbane: Department of Family Services and Aboriginal and Islander Affairs.
A year long authorship study using qualitative and quantitative techniques and activities. 82% of the participants demonstrated their authorship via facilitation.

Weiss, M.J.S., Wagner, S., & Bauman, M. (1996). A case of validated facilitated communication. Mental Retardation , 34, 220-230.
An article reporting on a controlled investigation of authorship using message passing. The study is especially important because it involves elaborate content for the message passing. "The case of a 13 year old boy with autism, severe mental retardation, and a seizure disorder who was able to demonstrate valid facilitated communication was described. In three independent trials, short stories were presented to him, followed by validation test procedures with an uninformed facilitator providing physical support to the subject's arm. In Trials 1 and 3, several specific answers were provided that clearly indicated that the young man, not the uninformed facilitator, was the source of the information. Moreover, some responses seemed to imply that the subject was employing simple inferential and abstract reasoning. This case study adds to the small, but growing number of demonstrations that facilitated communication can sometimes be a valid method for at least some individuals with developmental disabilities" (p. 220).

Wheeler, D.L., Jacobson, J.W., Paglieri, R.A., & Schwartz, A.A. (1993). An experimental assessment of facilitated communication. Mental Retardation, 31, 49-60.
The most often cited, classic study of authorship on facilitation, where all participants failed to demonstrate authorship and where seven were clearly influenced in the communication by their facilitators.

Zanobini, M. (2001). La communicazione facilitata in un bambino autistico. Psicologia Clinica Dello Sviluppo. V, 395-421.
“Research…aimed at exploring facilitated communicative interactions between an autistic child and his main facilitators in naturally occurring contexts. In particular, we hypothesized that: 1) child’s verbal production shows some stylistic consistence, but varies according to different contexts (school vs. home; formal vs. informal texts) and different facilitators (mother and teacher); 2) child’s original and peculiar linguistic behaviour may indicate a relative linguistic independence in facilitated communication. A 7 year old child, with diagnosis of autism, participated in 28 facilitated sessions at home and at school. The whole linguistic corpus was examined by Sphinx Lexica Edition Program. Linguistic analyses concerned global aspects, lexical and content characteristics. Results confirm essentially the hypothesis” (p. 421).

Public Policy and Law

Botash, A., Babuts, D., Mitchell, N., O'Hara, M., Manuel, J., Lynch, L. (1994). Evaluations of Children who have disclosed sexual abuse via facilitated communication. Archives of Pediatric Medicine, 148, 1282-1287.
A medical team’s evaluation of cases in which individuals using facilitation purportedly made allegations of abuse. Several students were found to have medical evidence of abuse. The pattern of evidence in this group parallels the patterns seen in the nondisabled, speaking population in the region in which the study was conducted.

Candelora, V.J. (1995). Facilitated communication: A scientific theory or mode of communication? Should people with autism have a voice in court. Dickinson Law Review, 99, 753-778.
Law review article that critiques the application of the Frye test as a measure for determining admissibility of evidence given via facilitation.

Duchan, J.F., Calculator, S., Sonnenmeier, R., Diehl, S., & Cumley, G.D. (2001). A framework for managing controversial issues. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 133-141.
“This article offers a clinical practice framework for gathering information about controversial approaches and for implementing and monitoring their use. The framework ... (is) illustrated using facilitated communication as an example of a controversial practice” (p. 133). “Regarding FC as an AAC (Augmentative and Alternative Communication) approach follows from ASHA’s definition of AAC because it is: an area of clinical practice that attempts to compensate (either temporarily or permanently) for the impairment and disability patterns of individuals with severe expressive communication disorders (i.e., the severely speech-language and writing impaired)” (ASHA, 1989, p. 107) (p. 134). “Documenting individual progress. The team should institute a variety of systematic procedures to examine a method’s effectiveness for an individual. Data should be collected regularly and, when possible, in natural situations in which communicators take an active role. Documentation carried out in naturally occurring contexts offers a way to evaluate a program’s success and avoids having to subject clients to an excessive amount of formal testing” (p. 137).

Dwyer, J. (1996). Access to justice for people with severe communication impairment. Administrative Law Review, 3, 73-120.
An exceptionally well-documented, thorough review of legal issues surrounding facilitated communication in Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S.

In the Matter of Luz P. (anonymous). Supreme Court of the State of New York, Appellate Division, Second Judicial Department, 92-07565, March 29, 1993.
The first, and most cited, court decision in which it was found that individuals using facilitation should have a chance to prove they are communicating their own words, and that the fact that they use a novel means of communication should not in itself be cause for exclusion from court.

Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J.A., and Schwartz, A.A. (1995). A history of facilitated communication: Science, pseudoscience, and antiscience. American Psychologist, 50, 750-765.
Starting with a biting attack of facilitated communication, the authors suggest that this method’s acceptance is related to “anti-science” views that they say have led to deinstitutionalization and inclusion, which the authors also attack.

Kliewer, C. & Drake, S. (1998). Disability, eugenics and the current ideology of segregation: A modern moral tale. Disability & Society, 13, 95-111.
This article examines how the discourse of facilitated communication has included attempts to use the language and authority of science to silence individuals, including those who have proven their communicative competence. The authors see similarities between this and efforts earlier in the 20th century to foster eugenics and institutionalization by attempting to cloak segregationist ideology in the language of natural science. The authors “explore the legacy of the ideology of control as it impacts current understanding of disability.”

Luxton, M.S. (1994). Facilitated communication for people with autism in the courts: Balancing the need for reliable evidence with the requirements of the Constitution. Hamline Law Review, 18, 201-230.
Law review article argues for the right of people using facilitation to participate in the courtroom, under certain conditions.

Maurer, N. (1995). Facilitated communication: Can children with autism have a voice in court? Maryland Journal of Contemporary Legal Issues, 6, 233-282.
A detailed analysis of cases in the U.S. involving facilitation, and a concise argument for how, when, and under what conditions testimony via facilitated communication should be accepted in the courtroom.

Shane, H.C. (Ed.) (1994). Facilitated communication. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group.
In the editor’s own words, the series of articles that comprise this book conclude that “the theory behind the practice of FC is misguided and simplistic” (p. ix).

Spitz, H.H. (1997). Nonconscious movements: From mystical messages to facilitated communication. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
The author argues that facilitated communication is a hoax, much like table moving, the Ouija board, mind reading, and other magical tricks. The author characterizes facilitated communication as something that should be “expunged,” as “a virus run rampant.” Facilitated communication, he argues, “takes its place alongside the witch trials, magic cures, animal magnetism, and other such phenomena in the long struggle of our species to emerge from the grip of irrationality.”

State of Kansas v. Warden, S.Ct. Kansas, No. 70,337, 1995 LEXIS 41.
Supreme Court of Kansas decision allowing a conviction based on an allegation and testimony by facilitation in an abuse case.

Taylor, S. (1994). Editor’s introduction to the exchange of opinion on the risks and benefits of facilitated communication. Mental Retardation, 32, 299-300.
Introduces article by Levine, Shane, and Wharton that calls for evaluating facilitated communication using guidelines developed for new medical treatments. The authors advocate that use and promotion of facilitated communication be halted until or unless “sound scientific evidence” establishes its validity as a means of communication. Commentaries -- most of them are critical of the Levine et al. Framework and conclusion-- are offered by Ferguson & Horner, Goode, Halle, and Hitzing, with a rejoinder by Levine et al.

Twachtman-Cullen, D. (1997). A passion to believe. Boulder, CO: Westview.
The author argues that facilitation is attended by an “FC culture”: that “sociopolitical phenomenon in which unanimity of thought and philosophy has created a class of believers whose sacred mission it is not only to advance the cause of facilitated communication but also to disparage the opposition.”

Waterhouse, S. (2000). A positive approach to autism. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
“How to sum up (about facilitated communication)? Perhaps before answering that I should first ask whether we actually have the right to withhold what could, for some, be an extremely helpful tool in dealing with everyday life. To deny those people a voice. Would we deny those with multiple handicaps the opportunity to use every modern technological aid which might help, simply because it might at some point cause misunderstandings? Of course not. Progress brings many advances, some of which could always, in the wrong hands, be misused but only a tyrant or a fool would wish to stop it….One person asked what use it was if it could not ‘cure’ autism. This is an extremely short-sighted view for, at its best, facilitated communication allows sufferers to take an active part in the world by making decisions and communicating their ideas, hopes and problems. In the long term, too, it may contribute greatly to the fight against autism by enhancing our understanding of the abilities and problems of the people themselves, which is what we should be working for. Let us ensure that FC gives maximum benefit by using it carefully and treating the writings of those who use it with respect.”

Williams, D. (1994). Invited commentary: In the Real World. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 196-199.
Best selling author, Donna Williams, gives a brilliant critique of arguments on both sides of the facilitation debate; she offers her own explanations for why the method may work and also why some people may easily be influenced in their communication. This issue of JASH includes articles by Green & Shane and by Biklen & Duchan, as well as other commentaries on facilitated communication.

School and Community Participation

Bogdan, Robert & Taylor, Steven J. (1989). Relationships with severely disabled people: The social construction of humanness. Social Problems, 36:2, 135-148.
The authors investigate the nature of relationships between people with and without disabilities, stressing the importance of assuming competence, humanity, and personality in those previously declared retarded. The authors frame their discussion around a sociology of acceptance and identify four dimensions which maintain humanness of the people with severe disabilities: attributing thinking to the other, seeing individuality in the other, viewing the other as reciprocating, and defining social place for the other.

Giangreco, Michael F., Luiselli, Tracy Evans, & MacFarland, Stephanie Z. C. (1997). Helping or hovering? Effects of instructional assistant proximity on students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64:1, 7-18.
With the recent proliferation of paraprofessional support in inclusive classrooms, this article analyzes the nature of that support. The authors offer specific benefits and drawbacks of paraprofessional support the way that it is currently offered. They suggest directions for future research and trends for paraprofessional support that benefit all students in inclusive classrooms.

Giangreco, Michael F., Broer Stephen M., & Edelman, Susan . (1999). The tip of the iceberg: Determining whether paraprofessional support is needed for students with disabilities in general education settings. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 281-291.
Building on their earlier work “Helping or Hovering?,” (1997) the authors present a framework for determining the need and nature of paraprofessional support in inclusive classrooms. Their work is based on extensive observations and interviews in inclusive classrooms.

Giangreco, Michael F., Broer, Steven M., & Edelman, Susan W. (2001). Teacher engagement with students with disabilities: Differences between paraprofessional service delivery models. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 75-86.
Continuing their work on the nature of paraprofessional support, the authors describe various levels of teacher and paraprofessional engagement in inclusive classrooms. Their work is based on extensive observations and interviews in these classrooms.

Hehir, T. (2002). Eliminating ableism in education. Harvard Education Review, 72, 1-32.
In this article, Hehir defines ableism as “the devaluation of disability” that “results in societal attitudes that uncritically assert that it is better for a child to walk than roll, speak than sign, read print than read Braille, spell independently than use a spell-check, and hang out with nondisabled kids as opposed to other disabled kids.” He asserts that “the pervasiveness of . . . ableist assumptions in the education of children with disabilities not only reinforces prevailing prejudices against disability but may very well contribute to low levels of educational attainment and employment.” In conclusion, Hehir offers six detailed proposals for beginning to address and overturn ableist practices.

Jorgensen, C. (1998). Restructuring high schools for all students: Taking inclusion to the next level. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Simultaneously thoughtful and straightforward, this book shares a process of systems change and specific strategies to implement inclusive education with the goal of developing schools that value and teach all students. The book contains strong inclusive values and pedagogical information and is valuable for educators in every role (teachers, paraprofessionals, families, administrators, individuals, professors).

Kasa-Hendrickson, C. (2004). “There’s no way this kid’s retarded”: Teachers’ optimistic constructions of students’ ability. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9, 55-69.
This qualitative study analyses the experiences of four teachers who, within the context of the inclusive classroom, resist interpreting non-verbal students with autism as mentally retarded and seek to form a new understanding of ability. The author discusses the following themes: finding situations where students demonstrate competence, rethinking performance and understanding, and expecting struggles.

Kasa-Hendrickson, C., Broderick, A., Biklen, D. (producers), and Gambell, J. (director) (2002). Inside the edge: A journey to using speech through typing. Video documentary. Available from Syracuse University, 370 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, New York.
This video documents a high school student’s emergence into speech: he can speak words as he types them and can read the texts he has written, and most recently is beginning to use longer sentences in spoken dialogue. The video includes clips of the student when he first learned to communicate through facilitation and shows his ability to now type without physical support. Jamie Burke, the subject of the video, wrote and speaks the entire narrative of the video.

Kasa-Hendrickson, C. & Kluth, P. (2004). “We have to start with inclusion and work it out as we go”: Purposeful inclusion of non-verbal students with autism. Journal of Whole Schooling, 2, 2-17.
In this qualitative study the authors analyzed the experiences of five teachers who were actively committed to practicing inclusion and seeking strategies to provide access and opportunity within the general education classroom. Findings from a long-term qualitative study suggested that teachers’ thoughtful planning and systematic teaching created successful educational experiences for six non-verbal students with autism. Teachers engaged in the following principles when supporting the successful inclusion of non-verbal students with autism: establishing the community, making classrooms accessible, and working through challenges.

Kliewer, C. (1998). Schooling children with Down syndrome: Toward an understanding of possibility. New York: Teachers College Press.
This book explores how children with Down syndrome are “constructed” by the school settings they attend. The author demonstrates how competent performance is contextualized and how it emerges especially well in inclusive settings. Several examples are of students who use facilitated communication to express themselves.

Kluth, P. (2003). “You’re going to love this kid!”: Teaching students with autism in the inclusive classroom. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
In this book, Kluth challenges readers to rethink autism by presenting the experiences and words of those with autism spectrum labels as she offers specific strategies to achieve inclusive education. She offers many curricular ideas and methods to support and teach all students with autism labels in inclusive classrooms. The book flows easily between theory and practice.

Kluth, P., Straut, D., & Biklen, D. (Eds.). (2003). Access to academics for all students: Critical approaches to inclusive curriculum, instruction and policy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Inclusion, with its roots in mainstreaming and integration, has long been focused on social gains of students with disabilities. While there is value to this, the assumption that students with disabilities cannot learn academics in inclusive classrooms undermines inclusive education. This book challenges this assumption by presenting theory and practice which unequivocally states that all students can and do make academic gains in inclusive classrooms.

Kluth, Paula, Villa, Richard A., & Thousand, Jacqueline S. (2002). “Our school doesn’t offer inclusion” and other legal blunders. Educational Leadership, December 2001/January 2002, 24-27.
The authors investigate current resistance to inclusive education based on their own experiences in schools. They not only question the educational value and social justice of continued educational segregation of students with disabilities but also turn to the law to challenge such practices legally.

Kunc, Norman. (1992). The need to belong: Rediscovering Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In Villa, R., Thousand, J. Stainback, W., & Stainback, S. (Eds.) Restructuring for caring and effective education. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Kunc, a man with cerebral palsy, is a noted presenter and author stressing not only the benefits of, but also the need for inclusive education. This article focuses on the basic human need to belong and how this plays out in today’s schools for students with and without disabilities.

Lobisch, B.G. (1999). Malen ist Hoffnung. Wurzburg (Germany): Bentheim.
Paintings by people with autism and related disabilities, with their own explanations and discussions of their work; the artists are facilitated communication users. (In German).

Lovett, H. (1996). Learning to listen: Positive approaches and people with difficult behavior. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
This book is not focused on alternative and augmentative communication per se, but may be useful in helping readers to see how behavior is often a communicative response to social contexts. The book jacket reads: “The case studies within convincingly demonstrate that people do not have to be deprived of their dignity or robbed of their civil rights in order to help them with their difficult behaviors.”

Reed, D. (1996). Paid for the Privilege. Madison, WI: DRI Press.
This is a facilitator’s account of how he happened upon facilitation when he went to work at a supported employment agency. It is a humorous and poignant account of how a business-man-turned-day-center-marketing-director learns about disability from people who had grown up without speech and whom others believed were mentally retarded.

Rice, N. (2001). Encouraging inquiry: Professional exploration in three organizations. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 12, 28-39.
This qualitative study explores leadership factors and organizational culture of agencies and schools that sustained the use of facilitated communication over and 8-year period. It was found that staff’s personal experiences with the method challenged traditional disability constructs, allowing for further exploration of the method in collaborative work groups. Administrative support and individual and organizational histories were also elements that supported use of the method. The author contends that a complex, controversial and individualized method such as facilitated communication may be sustained in an environment that supports and encourages professional inquiry.

Schnorr, R. (1990). “Peter? He comes and goes…”: First graders’ perspectives on a part-time mainstream student. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 231-240.
This article explores students’ perceptions of a classmate who is pulled out of his class for special education services. The perception that Peter does not belong to the class is a powerful reminder of what inclusion is not and the consequences of educational practices that separate students.

Schnorr, Roberta F. (1997). From enrollment to membership: “Belonging” in middle and high school classes. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 22, 1-15.
This article describes participation and membership in four inclusive middle and high school classes. Based on classroom observations and interviews, this work allows readers glimpses of classroom life in the form of student perspectives. Many of the social goals that all kids have can be met with thoughtful supports and lessons in inclusive classrooms.

Sonnenmeier, R., McSheehan, M., & Jorgensen, C. (2005). A case study of team supports for a student with autism’s communication and engagement within the general education curriculum: Preliminary report of the Beyond Access model. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 21, 101-115.
The authors provide a model for organizing a team approach to developing communication, academic, and social supports in an inclusive classroom.

Taylor, Steven J. (1988). Caught in the continuum: A critical analysis of the least restrictive environment. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 13, 41-53.
This article examines the principle of "least restrictive environment" and the associated "continuum" concept, which have served as frameworks for the design of residential, vocational, and special education services for people with developmental disabilities. The author identifies the conceptual and philosophical flaws underlying these notions and argues for the need to develop new concepts and principles to guide the development of services.

Udvari-Solner A., & Thousand, J. (1996). Creating a responsive curriculum for inclusive schools. Remedial and Special Education, 17, 182-192.
The authors begin with a reconstructionist perspective that suggests that the current state of educational practices can and should improve. They continue to describe theoretical and practical aspects of inclusive classrooms in which all students belong and are successful. Central to this learner-centered vision are multiple intelligences theory, multiculturalism, cooperative learning, authentic assessment, and social responsibility.

Related Research
(e.g., on movement disturbance and other communication related topics)

Bara, B.G., Bucciarelli, M., & Colle, L. (2001). Communicative abilities in autism: Evidence for attentional deficits. Brain and Language, 77, 216-240.
“We suggest that FC allows autistics to overcome the attentional deficits that would impair their performance in theory of mind and pragmatic tasks. Indeed, in FC the facilitator’s role is to continuously keep the children’s attention on the task at hand” (p. 233); “Our findings show that communicative competence in autistic children is intact. It is certainly true that, under normal conditions, communicative performance in autistics is blatantly disrupted; but once attentional and emotional support is offered, performance is restored” (p. 234).

Bluestone, J. (2004). The fabric of autism: Weaving the threads into a cogent theory. Seattle, WA: The HANDLE Institute.
In this book, Bluestone combines her personal autistic experience with academic research and more than 35 years of clinical practice to craft a view of autism integrating bodily experiences and sensory systems.

Bristol, M.M., Cohen, D.J., Costello, E.J., Denckla, M., Eckberg, T.J., Kallen R., Kraemer, H.C., Lord, C., Maurer, R., McIlvane, W.J., Minshew, N., Sigman, M., and Spence, M.A. (1996). State of the science in autism: Report to the National Institutes of Health. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 121-154.
This article suggests that motor disturbance may be related to difficulties of expression. “Many individuals with autism lack speech and have limitation in gestural communication and in the use of augmentative communication systems. These problem areas may be caused or complicated by specific sensory difficulties and/or general motor or more specific motor/speech impairment” (p. 143).

Donnellan, A.M. & Leary, M.. R. (1995). Movement differences and diversity in autism/mental retardation. Madison, WI: DRI Press.
The authors explore the idea that conceptions of mental retardation have failed to acknowledge the importance of movement disturbance in relation to communication: “Symptoms of movement differences and disturbances can create an impression of retardation that is limited capacity…The fact that these symptoms have been either ignored or misunderstood for more than 100 years has created the impression that they are part of the package of certain syndromes, such as autism and many categories of mental retardation” (p. 40). “We seldom looked carefully at the symptoms to try to understand how these might affect a person’s ability to communicate, relate, participate and demonstrate to us that he has thoughts and feelings that he cannot express” (p. 41).

Filipek, P.A., Accardo, P.J., Baranek, G.T., Cook, B.E. Jr.,, Dawson, G., Gordon, B., Gravel, J.D., Johnson, C.P., Kallen, R.J., Levy, S.E., Minshew, N.J., Prizant, B.M., Rapin, I., Roger, S.J., Stone, W.L., Teplin, S., Tuchman, R.F., Volkmar, F.R. (1999). The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 29, 439-484.
This article notes that movement problems can be observed in people with autism. “...qualitative observations of praxis (e.g., planning or sequencing of novel complex movement patterns; imitation of movements or pantomime; organization of goal-directed actions with materials in the environment) are a critical part of the sensorimotor evaluation for individuals with autism because these abilities are deficient Roger, Bennetto, McEvoy, & Pennington 1996; Sone & Lemanek, 1990), and require specific interventions” (p. 465).

Gernsbacher, M. A. (2003). Is one style of early behavioral treatment for autism ‘scientifically proven?’ Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, 7, 27-34.
This article challenges the assumption of “scientific evidence” for applied behavior analysis (ABA) by reviewing Lovaas’ original studies.

Gillingham, G. (1996). Autism: Handle with care. Edmonton: Tacit Publishing Inc.
This exploration of the experience of autism is one of the first to value and to use predominantly first-hand accounts from people with labels of autism themselves. It is person-centered, inclusive, and respectful. Learn about the sensory issues, movement differences, and communication behind behavior previously assumed to manifest “mental retardation.”

Gillingham, G. (2000). Autism- A new understanding: Solving the ‘mystery’ of autism, Asperger’s and PDD-NOS. Edmonton: Tacit Publishing Inc.
A companion volume for Autism: Handle with care, this book once again creates a broad picture of autism through the experiences of those with autism spectrum labels.

Goode, D. (1992). Who is Bobby? Ideology and method in the discovery of a Down syndrome person’s competence. In P. Ferguson, D. Ferguson, & S. Taylor (Eds.), Interpreting disability: A qualitative reader (pp. 197-212). New York: Teachers College Press.
Goode discusses using an "emic" approach to the study of people with developmental disabilities, which is contrasted with the typical "etic" or medical/objective approach. An emic approach is a subjective or insider point of view that may offer a better understanding of the competency of a person with a developmental disability than the one-time assessment and labeling of many etic approaches.

Johnson, I. (1989). "Hellish difficult to live in this world": Unexpected emergence of written communication in a group of severely mentally handicapped individuals. Journal of Social Work Practice, 4, 13-23.
This article describes the emergence of written language by 14 young adults who did not speak and lived in a residential home for those with labels of severe disability in Copenhagen, Denmark. Prior to this discovery, staff at the home began to treat the individuals living there according to their chronological age and exchanged the children’s toys around the home for books and magazines.

Kangas, K.A. & Lloyd, L.L. (1988). Early cognitive skills as prerequisites to augmentative and alternative communication use: What are we waiting for? Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 4, 211-221.
While not about facilitated communication, this is an important article in the field of augmentative and alternative communication. It makes the point that children with developmental disabilities are often not given means of communication because they are unable to demonstrate certain motor and response skills. The article argues for providing students with developmental disabilities literature rich and communication rich environments as well as access to communication devices and methods, even if traditional prerequisites have not been demonstrated.

Leary, M.R. & Hill, D.A. (1996). Moving on: Autism and movement disturbance. Mental Retardation, 34, 39-53.
A detailed account of motor problems seen in individuals with developmental disabilities; motor difficulties may block individuals from revealing intellectual abilities.

Mackay, R. (2003). “Tell them who I was”: The social construction of aphasia. Disability & Society, 18, 811-826.
Based on interviews with 18 individuals with aphasia and his own experiences, Mackay describes constructions of aphasia and conceptions of competence according to the medical and social ideologies. “The doctor operated in this situation as if I was a person without voice, I could not speak a language that he could understand. For the doctor, I manifested the signs of aphasia not being able to talk and a weakened left side…His brand of service accomplished (a) my voicelessness, (b) his identity as the expert decision-maker and (c) my agency as subject to his regulation.” (p. 815).

Oppenheim, R. C. (1974). Effective Teaching Methods for Autistic Children. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
A parent/educator’s account of a touch method of handwriting with individuals with autism that appears to be the same thing as facilitated communication. Includes a theoretical explanation based on apraxia.

Seal, B.C. & Bonvillian, J.D. (1997). Sign language and motor functioning in students with autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27, 437-466.
This is one of a number of recent studies that document the motor disturbance difficulties associated with autism. This study notes that apraxia is most evident in those individuals who have the greatest communication difficulties. “Subjects who obtained higher scores (i.e., better performance) on the apraxia measures also tended to be those students who were more successful in their sign language acquisition” (p. 453). “Students who produced a wider array of sign formational elements showed less evidence of a deficit in praxis than students who produced a more limited number of formational elements” (p. 454).

Smukler, D. (2005). Unauthorized minds: How “theory of mind” theory misrepresents autism. Mental Retardation, 43, 11-24.
Recent representations of autism frequently include an assumption that autism is the result of a “theory of mind” deficit (i.e., an inability to understand others' mental states). Smukler examines this notion using a social constructionist perspective. Theory of mind theorists define autism as a form of insufficiency and as requiring fixing rather than accommodation. Alternative narratives about autistic minds that incorporate the perspectives of people labeled autistic are an important counterbalance to the limitations of such professional viewpoints.

Williams, D. (1996). Autism: An inside-out approach. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Focusing on “three faces of autism”: problems of connection, problems of tolerance and problems of control, this book goes beyond the label to the systems and mechanics of what is going on. Unlike any text books written by non-autistic professionals, it gives detailed suggestions on strategies to reduce these burdens in a way which takes account of the experience of 'autism', from the inside.

Williams, D. (2003). Exposure anxiety – the invisible cage an exploration of self-protection responses in the autism spectrum and beyond. New York, NY: Jessica Kingsley.
This book describes the social-emotional self-protection response of Exposure Anxiety. Exposure Anxiety is an involuntary response involving avoidance, diversion and retaliation responses to environmental stimuli and incoming information. Williams shares her own experiences and those of individuals she has known and supported.

Literacy

Chandler-Olcott, K. (2003). Seeing all students as literate. In P. Kluth, D. Straut, D. Biklen (Eds.) Access to academics for all students: Critical approaches to inclusive curriculum, instruction, and policy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbuam Associates.
This chapter includes 4 approaches to seeing all students as potentially literate and supporting them as capable learners. Chandler-Olcott challenges assumptions that certain students are not and will never be literate.

Erickson, K. (2000). All children are ready to learn: An emergent versus readiness perspective in early literacy assessment. Seminars in Speech and Language, 21, 193-203.
The author explains the concept of emergent literacy and provides specific methods of assessing literacy in all students. This article is rooted in the recognition of academic potential and learning for all students in inclusive classrooms.

Erickson, K., & Koppenhaver, D. (1995). Developing a literacy program for children with severe disabilities. The Reading Teacher, 48, 676-684.
The authors focus on emergent literacy, take a presuming competence approach, and develop specific strategies.

Kliewer, C. & Biklen, D. (2001) “School’s not really a place for reading”: An analysis of the literate lives of people with severe disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 1-12.
Combining their research on literacy and inclusive education with the experiences of families and individuals in public schools, the authors explore current educational practices and the social construction of literacy and dis/ability: “Our research synthesis suggested that people construed as having severe intellectual disabilities demonstrate a symbolic and literate presence when supported by those who believe in their capacities and with whom they share an intimate relationship” (p. 11).

Kliewer, C. et. al. (2004). Citizenship for all in the literate community: An ethnography of young children with significant disabilities in inclusive early childhood settings. Harvard Educational Review, 373-403.
In this study, the authors use ethnographic methods to explore literacy development in young children considered to have significant disabilities. The authors describe several themes related to fostering effective literacy development in children historically segregated from rich curricular opportunities. In this effort, defining literacy as making meaning and interpreting children with disabilities as competent meaning-makers was foremost.

Koppenhaver, D., Coleman, P., Kalman, S., & Yoder, D. (1991). The implications of emergent literacy research for children with developmental disabilities. American Journal of Speech and Language Pathology, 1, 38-44.
Recent research in emergent literacy has led to a conceptualization of literacy learning as a continuous process that begins at birth. Such a view has critical implications for children with developmental disabilities because it implies that the potential for written language learning is present in everyone. In this article, emergent literacy research in both nondisabled children and children with developmental disabilities is synthesized.

Koppenhaver, D., & Erickson, K. (2003). Natural emergent literacy supports for preschoolers with autism and severe communication impairments. Topics in Language Disorders, 23, 283-292.
Print materials, experiences, and writing technologies were introduced into a preschool classroom for children with autism spectrum disorders, including three 3-year-olds with severe communication impairments. The goal was to increase natural literacy learning opportunities and to explore the effects on children's emergent literacy behaviors and understandings. Findings suggest that the children found the materials and experiences interesting and that their understanding and use of print materials and tools increased in sophistication.

Koppenhaver, D.A., Pierce, P.L. & Yoder, D.E. (1995). AAC, FC, and the ABCs: Issues and relationships. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 4, 5-15.
The authors suggest that knowledge from the fields of AAC and literacy be integrated into the research and clinical practice of facilitated communication. This article includes an account of the experiences of one of the authors in a summer program for children with autism. Without the use of FC, the author was able to discover literacy skills in all individuals far in excess of what would be expected on the basis of their formal evaluations and school performance.

Mirenda, P. (2003). “He’s not really a reader…”: Perspectives on supporting literacy development in individuals with autism. Topics in Language Disorders, 23, 271-282.
Examples of the experiences of people with autism who have become successful readers, including some FC users who now type independently, are included in this article to illustrate the importance of promoting literacy development for all learners.

Ryndak, D. L., Morrison, A., & Sommerstein, L. (1999). Literacy before and after inclusion in general education settings: A case study. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 5-22.
This 7-year case study explores the academic gains made by one student after being taught in inclusive classrooms. It begins with Melinda at 15 years old having only been taught in self-contained classrooms and continues to follow her academic gains when she is finally taught in inclusive classrooms. The authors explore and challenge common assumptions of literacy and dis/ability.

Disability Studies

Blatt, Burton & Kaplan, Fred. (1974). Christmas in purgatory: A photographic essay on mental retardation. Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press.
This is a reprinted edition of Blatt and Kaplan's 1966 photographic expose of conditions in America's institutions. Shot with a hidden camera, Christmas in Purgatory depicts overcrowded and dehumanizing conditions found at eight institutions in the Northeast. Blatt was one of the few professionals to speak out against institutional warehousing in the 1960s. Kaplan’s photos and Blatt’s eloquent writing spark the deinstitutionalization and community inclusion movements.

Bogdan, R. (1988). Freak show: Presenting human oddities for amusement and profit. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
A social history of the depiction of "human oddities," including people with disabilities, for amusement and profit. Freak Show is a classic study of depictions of disability in popular culture.

Bogdan, Robert & Biklen, Douglas. (1977). Handicapism. Social Policy, March/April, 14-19.
Written over 25 years ago, this article details the discrimination against people with disabilities that is now called ableism. The authors introduce the concept of handicapism as a way to understand disability as a social construct. They define it as a "set of assumptions and practices that promote the differential and unequal treatment of people because of apparent or assumed physical, mental, or behavioral differences."

Goode, D. (1994). A world without words: The social construction of children born deaf and blind. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Based on his study of two girls who were born with rubella and are deaf-blind and classified as mentally retarded, Goode argues that despite a use of formal language, human beings can communicate and be understood through other means. He shows how the children created their own set of symbols to construct their reality using senses other than sight and sound.

Hayman, Robert L., Jr. (1998). The smart culture: Society, intelligence, and law. New York: New York University Press.
Hayman explores societal notions of intelligence, combining personal stories with history and case law. He argues that smartness is socially constructed. He weaves together a complex web of ideologies, uncovering the discrimination inherent in perpetuating a social hierarchy based on cultural notions of natural superiority.

Linton, S. (1998). Claiming disability: Knowledge and identity. New York: New York University Press.
In this book, Simi Linton studies disability in relation to identity. She argues that Disability Studies must understand the meanings people make of variations in human behavior, appearance, and functioning, not simply acknowledge that these variations “exist.” Linton explores the divisions society constructs between those labeled disabled and those who are not. She avoids a medicalized discussion of disability and promotes the notion that people with disabilities need to claim their identities as disabled and as contributing members to the understanding of disability as a socio-political experience.

Michalko, R. (2001). Blindness enters the classroom. Disability & Society, 16, 349-359.
The author shares some of his experiences as a blind professor in order to stress the social construction of blindness and sightedness, the importance of context, and the assumptions of competence implicit in these constructions.

Omansky Gordon, B., & Rosenblum, K. E. (2001). Bringing disability into the sociological frame: A comparison of disability with race, sex, and sexual orientation statuses. Disability & Society, 16, 5-19.
Applying a social constructionist perspective, this article explores the shared characteristics of American constructions of race, sex, sexual orientation, and disability. The discussion considers how each of these statuses is constructed through social processes in which categories of people are (1) named, (2) aggregated and disaggregated, (3) dichotomized and stigmatized, and (4) denied the attributes valued in the culture.

Shapiro, Joseph P. (1993). No pity: People with disabilities forging a new civil rights movement. New York: Times Books.
This selective history explores the disability rights movement and offers a foundation for disability studies. It details many key moments in the struggle for school and community inclusion including the 1988 protest at Gallaudet University and the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990.

Thomson, Rosemarie Garland. (1997). Extraordinary bodies. Figuring physical disability in American culture and literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
The author identifies and challenges the assumed natural hierarchy of normal and abnormal in this book. She explores representations of disability in American culture, describing and resisting ableist notions that continue to hinder school and community inclusion. In a brief conclusion, the author summarizes her intent in this writing “to critique the politics of appearance that governs our interpretations of physical difference, to suggest that disability requires accommodation rather than compensation, and to shift our conception of disability from pathology to identity.”